1.1 General Image and Imaging System Characteristics
1.2 Concept of Spatial Frequency
1.3 Spatial Resolution
1.3.1 Imaging System Point Spread Function
1.3.2 Imaging System Resolving Power
1.3.3 Imaging System Modulation Transfer Function
1.4 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
1.5 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio
1.6 Signal Digitization: Dynamic Range and Resolution
1.7 Post-acquisition Image Filtering
1.8 Assessing the Clinical Impact of Improvements in System Performance
1.8.1 The Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve
1.A.1 Fourier Transforms
1.A.2 Fourier Transforms of Time Domain and Spatial Frequency Domain Signals
1.A.3 Useful Properties of the Fourier Transform
Exercises
References
Further Reading
2 X-ray Imaging and Computed Tomography
2.1 General Principles of Imaging with X-rays
2.2 X-ray Production
2.2.1 The X-ray Tube
The X-ray Energy Spectrum
2.3 Interactions of X-rays with Tissue
2.3.1 Compton Scattering
2.3.2 The Photoelectric Effect
2.4 Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefficients of X-rays in Tissue
2.5 Instrumentation for Planar X-ray Imaging
2.5.1 Collimator
2.5.2 Anti-scatter Grid
2.6 Digital X-ray Detectors
2.7 X-ray Image Characteristics
2.7.1 Signal-to-Noise
2.7.2 Spatial Resolution
2.7.3 Contrast-to-Noise
2.8 X-ray Contrast Agents
2.8.1 Contrast Agents for the Gastrointestinal Tract
2.8.2 Iodine-Based Contrast Agents
2.9 X-ray Imaging Methods
2.9.1 X-ray Fluoroscopy
2.9.2 Digital Subtraction Angiography
2.10 Clinical Applications of X-ray Imaging
2.10.1 Digital Mammography
2.10.2 Abdominal X-ray Scans
2.11 Computed Tomography
2.12 CT Scanner Instrumentation
2.12.1 Beam Filtration
2.12.2 Detectors for Computed Tomography
2.13 Image Processing for Computed Tomography
2.13.1 Filtered Backprojection (FBP) Techniques
2.13.2 Fan-Beam and Spiral Reconstructions
2.14 Iterative Algorithms
2.15 Radiation Dose
2.16 Spectral/Dual Energy CT
2.17 Photon-Counting CT
2.18 Cone Beam, Mobile, and Portable CT Units
2.19 Clinical Applications of Computed Tomography
2.19.1 Head and Neurovascular Scans
2.19.2 Pulmonary Disease
2.19.3 Abdominal Imaging
2.19.4 Cardiovascular Imaging
Exercises
References
Further Reading
3 Nuclear Medicine
3.1 General Principles of Nuclear Medicine
3.2 Radioactivity and Radiotracer Half-life
3.3 Common Radiotracers Used for SPECT
3.4 The Technetium Generator
3.5 The Distribution of Technetium-Based Radiotracers within the Body
3.6 Instrumentation for SPECT and SPECT/CT
3.6.1 Collimators
3.6.2 Scintillation Crystal and Photomultiplier Tube-Based Detectors
3.6.3 The Anger Position Network and Pulse Height Analyzer
3.6.4 Solid-State Detectors and Specialized Cardiac Scanners
3.7 Image Reconstruction
3.7.1 Attenuation Correction
3.7.2 Scatter Correction
3.8 Image Characteristics
3.8.1 Signal-to-Noise
3.8.2 Spatial Resolution
3.8.3 Contrast-to-Noise
3.9 Clinical Applications of SPECT
3.9.1 Brain Imaging
3.9.2 Bone Scanning and Tumor Detection
3.9.3 Cardiac Imaging
3.9.4 The Respiratory System
3.9.5 The Liver and Reticuloendothelial System
3.10 Positron Emission Tomography
3.11 Radiotracers Used for PET
3.12 Instrumentation for PET
3.12.1 Scintillation Crystals and Detector Electronics
3.13 Image Reconstruction
3.13.1 Annihilation Coincidence Detection and Removal of Accidental Coincidences
3.13.2 Attenuation Correction
3.13.3 Scatter Correction
3.13.4 Dead-Time Correction
3.14 Image Characteristics
3.14.1 Spatial Resolution
3.14.2 Signal-to-Noise
3.14.3 Contrast-to-Noise
3.15 Acquisition Methods for PET
3.16 Total Body PET Systems
3.17 Clinical Applications of PET/CT
3.17.1 Body Oncology
3.17.2 Brain Imaging
3.17.3 Cardiac Imaging
Exercises
References
Further Reading
4 Ultrasound Imaging
4.1 General Principles of Ultrasound Imaging
4.2 Wave Propagation and Acoustic Impedance
4.3 Wave Reflection
4.4 Energy Loss Mechanisms in Tissue
4.4.1 Scattering
4.4.2 Absorption
4.4.3 Overall Wave Attenuation
4.5 Instrumentation
4.5.1 Transducer Construction
4.5.2 Transducer Arrays
4.5.2.1 Linear Sequential Array
4.5.2.2 Curvilinear/Convex Sequential Array
4.5.2.3 Linear-Phased Array
4.6 Signal Detection and Processing
4.6.1 Time Gain Compensation
4.6.2 Receive Beam Forming
4.7 Diagnostic Scanning Modes
4.7.1 A-Mode, M-Mode, and B-Mode Scans
4.7.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging
4.7.3 Compound Imaging
4.7.4 Other Transmit and Receive Beamforming Techniques
4.8 Image Characteristics
4.8.1 Signal-to-Noise
4.8.2 Spatial Resolution
4.8.2.1 Axial Resolution
4.8.2.2 Lateral Resolution
4.8.3 Contrast-to-Noise
4.9 Artifacts in Ultrasound Imaging
4.10 Blood Velocity Measurements Using Ultrasound
4.10.1 The Doppler Effect
4.10.2 Pulsed-Mode Doppler Measurements
4.10.3 Color Doppler/B-mode Duplex and Triplex Imaging
4.10.4 Continuous Wave Doppler (CWD) Measurements
4.11 Ultrasound Contrast Agents
4.11.1 Harmonic and Pulse Inversion Techniques
4.11.2 Super-Resolution in Ultrasound Imaging
4.12 Safety and Bioeffects in Ultrasound Imaging
4.13 Point-of-Care Ultrasound Systems
4.14 Clinical Applications of Ultrasound
4.14.1 Obstetrics and Gynecology
4.14.2 Breast Imaging
4.14.3 Musculoskeletal Structure
4.14.4 Abdominal
Exercises
References
Further Reading
5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
5.1 General Principles of MRI Acquisition and Hardware
5.2 Nuclear Magnetization
5.2.1 Quantum Mechanical Description
5.2.2 Classical Description
5.2.3 Hydrogen Nuclei in Water and Lipid
5.2.4 Radiofrequency Pulses and the Creation of Transverse Magnetization
5.2.5 Signal Detection and Fourier Transformation
5.3 T₁ and T2 Relaxation Mechanisms and Tissue Relaxation Times
5.3.1 Tissue-Dependent Relaxation Times
5.3.2 Measurement of T₁ and T2: Inversion-Recovery and Spin-Echo Sequences
5.4 The MR Free Induction Decay
5.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
5.5.1 Spatial Localization
5.5.2 Imaging Concepts
5.5.2.1 Slice Selection
5.5.2.2 Phase-encoding
5.5.2.3 Frequency-encoding
5.5.2.4 The k-Space Formalism and Image Reconstruction
5.6 Imaging Sequences and Techniques
5.6.1 Multislice Gradient-Echo Sequences
5.6.2 Multislice Spin-Echo and Turbo-Spin-Echo Sequences
5.6.3 Three-Dimensional Gradient-Echo and Spin-Echo Sequences
5.6.4 Proton Density, T1, T2-, and T2-Weighted Sequences
5.6.5 Lipid Suppression Techniques
5.7 MRI Contrast Agents
5.8 Advanced Sequences
5.8.1 Magnetic Resonance Angiography
5.8.2 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging with Echo Planar Readout
5.8.3 In Vivo Localized Spectroscopy
5.8.4 Functional MRI
5.9 Instrumentation
5.9.1 Magnet Design
5.9.1.1 Clinical Superconducting Magnets
5.9.1.2 Very High Field Magnets
5.9.1.3 High-Temperature Superconductors
5.9.1.4 Mid- and Low-Field Magnets
5.9.2 Magnetic Field Gradient Coils
5.9.3 Radiofrequency Coils
5.9.3.1 Transmit Coil
5.9.4 Receiver Coil Array
5.9.5 Receiver Electronics
5.10 Image Reconstruction from Undersampled Data
5.10.1 Parallel Imaging Using an Array of Receiver Coils
5.10.2 Compressed Sensing
5.11 Image Characteristics
5.11.1 Signal-to-Noise
5.11.2 Spatial Resolution
5.11.3 Contrast-to-Noise
5.12 Image Artifacts
5.13 RF Safety Considerations
5.14 Clinical Applications of MRI
5.14.1 Neurological
5.14.2 Body Imaging
5.14.3 Musculoskeletal
5.14.4 Cardiac
Exercises
References
Further Reading
6 Optical Imaging
6.1 General Properties of Optical Imaging Methods
6.2 Propagation of Light Through Tissue
6.3 Body Emissivity Techniques – Infrared Thermography
6.4 Direct Imaging with Visible Light
6.4.1 Fundus Photography
6.4.2 Scheimpflug Camera
6.5 Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
6.5.1 Basic Principles of Interferometry
6.5.2 Instrumentation for OCT
6.5.2.1 Light Sources
6.5.2.2 Beam-Splitter
6.5.2.3 Photodetectors
6.5.3 Image Characteristics of OCT
6.5.4 OCT Angiography
6.5.5 Clinical Applications of OCT
6.6 Fluorescence-Guided Surgery (FGS)
6.6.1 Principle of Fluorescence
6.6.2 Fluorescent Probes
6.6.3 Instrumentation for Fluorescence Imaging
6.6.4 Clinical Applications of Fluorescence-Guided Surgery
6.7 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and Diffuse Optical Tomography (DOT)
6.7.1 Principle of NIRS
6.7.2 Principle of DOT
6.7.3 Instrumentation for NIRS
6.7.4 Clinical Applications of DOT
6.8 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI)
6.8.1 Principles of PAI
6.8.2 Photoacoustic Microscopy and Photoacoustic Computed Tomography
6.8.3 Instrumentation for PAI
6.8.4 Clinical Applications of PAI
References
Further Reading
7 Artificial Intelligence
7.1 Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Imaging
7.2 Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Neural Networks
7.2.1 Neural Networks
7.3 Deep Learning in Image Reconstruction
7.4 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)
7.5 Artificial Intelligence in X-ray and CT
7.5.1 Image Reconstruction
7.5.2 Clinical Applications
7.6 Artificial Intelligence in SPECT and PET
7.6.1 Image Reconstruction
7.6.2 Clinical Applications
7.7 Artificial Intelligence in Ultrasound
7.7.1 Improved Data Acquisition
7.7.2 Image Post-processing
7.7.3 Image