2.3.1 Zero order instrument
2.3.2 First order instrument
2.3.3 Second order instrument
2.4 Necessity for calibration
2.5 Self-test questions
-
ERRORS DURING THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources of systematic error
3.2.1 System disturbance due to measurement
3.2.2 Errors due to environmental inputs
3.2.3 Wear in instrument components
3.2.4 Connecting leads
3.3 Reduction of systematic errors
3.3.1 Careful instrument design
3.3.2 Method of opposing inputs
3.3.3 High-gain feedback
3.3.4 Calibration
3.3.5 Manual correction of output reading
3.3.6 Intelligent instruments
3.4 Quantification of systematic errors
3.5 Random errors
3.5.1 Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors
3.5.2 Graphical data analysis techniques – frequency distributions
3.6 Aggregation of measurement system errors
3.6.1 Combined effect of systematic and random errors
3.6.2 Aggregation of errors from separate measurement system components
3.6.3 Total error when combining multiple measurements
3.7 Self-test questions
References and further reading
-
CALIBRATION OF MEASURING SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTS
4.1 Principles of calibration
4.2 Control of calibration environment
4.3 Calibration chain and traceability
4.4 Calibration records
References and further reading
-
MEASUREMENT NOISE AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
5.1 Sources of measurement noise
5.1.1 Inductive coupling
5.1.2 Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling
5.1.3 Noise due to multiple earths